Annex A: Rationale

A.1 Introduction

A.1.1 Purpose

A.1.2 Scope

When judging relative merits of proposed changes to the standard, the members of the committee were guided by the following goals (listed in alphabetic order):

Consistency The standard provides a functionally complete set of words with minimal functional overlap.
Cost of compliance This goal includes such issues as common practice, how much existing code would be broken by the proposed change, and the amount of effort required to bring existing applications and systems into conformity with the standard.
Efficiency Execution speed, memory compactness.
Portability Words chosen for inclusion should be free of system-dependent features.
Readability Forth definition names should clearly delineate their behavior. That behavior should have an apparent simplicity which supports rapid understanding. Forth should be easily taught and support readily maintained code.
Utility Be judged to have sufficiently essential functionality and frequency of use to be deemed suitable for inclusion.

A.2 Terms and notation

A.2.1 Definitions of terms

aligned
Data can only be loaded from and stored to addresses that are aligned according to the alignment requirements of the accessed type. Field offsets that are added to structure addresses also need to be aligned.

ambiguous condition
The response of a Standard System to an ambiguous condition is left to the discretion of the implementor. A Standard System need not explicitly detect or report the occurrence of ambiguous conditions.

cross compiler
Cross compilers may be used to prepare a program for execution in an embedded system, or may be used to generate Forth kernels either for the same or a different run-time environment.

data field
In earlier standards, data fields were known as "parameter fields".

On subroutine threaded Forth systems, everything is object code. There are no traditional code or data fields. Only a word defined by CREATE or by a word that calls CREATE has a data field. Only a data field defined via CREATE can be manipulated portably.

word set
This standard recognizes that some functions, while useful in certain application areas, are not sufficiently general to justify requiring them in all Forth systems. Further, it is helpful to group Forth words according to related functions. These issues are dealt with using the concept of word sets.

The "Core" word set contains the essential body of words in a Forth system. It is the only "required" word set. Other word sets defined in this standard are optional additions to make it possible to provide Standard Systems with tailored levels of functionality.


A.2.2 Notation

A.2.2.2 Stack notation

The use of -sys, orig, and dest data types in stack effect diagrams conveys two pieces of information. First, it warns the reader that many implementations use the data stack in unspecified ways for those purposes, so that items underneath on either the control-flow or data stacks are unavailable. Second, in cases where orig and dest are used, explicit pairing rules are documented on the assumption that all systems will implement that model so that its results are equivalent to employment of some stack, and that in fact many implementations do use the data stack for this purpose. However, nothing in this standard requires that implementations actually employ the data stack (or any other) for this purpose so long as the implied behavior of the model is maintained.

A.3 Usage requirements

Forth systems are unusually simple to develop, in comparison with compilers for more conventional languages such as C. In addition to Forth systems supported by vendors, public-domain implementations and implementation guides have been widely available for nearly twenty years, and a large number of individuals have developed their own Forth systems. As a result, a variety of implementation approaches have developed, each optimized for a particular platform or target market.

The committee has endeavored to accommodate this diversity by constraining implementors as little as possible, consistent with a goal of defining a standard interface between an underlying Forth System and an application program being developed on it.

Similarly, we will not undertake in this section to tell you how to implement a Forth System, but rather will provide some guidance as to what the minimum requirements are for systems that can properly claim compliance with this standard.

A.3.1 Data types

Most computers deal with arbitrary bit patterns. There is no way to determine by inspection whether a cell contains an address or an unsigned integer. The only meaning a datum possesses is the meaning assigned by an application.

When data are operated upon, the meaning of the result depends on the meaning assigned to the input values. Some combinations of input values produce meaningless results: for instance, what meaning can be assigned to the arithmetic sum of the ASCII representation of the character "A" and a TRUE flag? The answer may be "no meaning"; or alternatively, that operation might be the first step in producing a checksum. Context is the determiner.

The discipline of circumscribing meaning which a program may assign to various combinations of bit patterns is sometimes called data typing. Many computer languages impose explicit data typing and have compilers that prevent ill-defined operations.

Forth rarely explicitly imposes data-type restrictions. Still, data types implicitly do exist, and discipline is required, particularly if portability of programs is a goal. In Forth, it is incumbent upon the programmer (rather than the compiler) to determine that data are accurately typed.

This section attempts to offer guidance regarding de facto data typing in Forth.

A.3.1.2 Character types

The correct identification and proper manipulation of the character data type is beyond the purview of Forth's enforcement of data type by means of stack depth. Characters do not necessarily occupy the entire width of their single stack entry with meaningful data. While the distinction between signed and unsigned character is entirely absent from the formal specification of Forth, the tendency in practice is to treat characters as short positive integers when mathematical operations come into play.

  1. Standard Character Set

    1. The storage unit for the character data type (C@, C!, FILL, etc.) must be able to contain unsigned numbers from 0 through 255.

    2. An implementation is not required to restrict character storage to that range, but a Standard Program without environmental dependencies cannot assume the ability to store numbers outside that range in a "char" location.

    3. The allowed number representations are two's-complement, one's-complement, and signed-magnitude. Note that all of these number systems agree on the representation of positive numbers.

    4. Since a "char" can store small positive numbers and since the character data type is a sub-range of the unsigned integer data type, C! must store the n least-significant bits of a cell (8 <= n <= bits/cell). Given the enumeration of allowed number representations and their known encodings, "TRUE xx C! xx C@" must leave a stack item with some number of bits set, which will thus will be accepted as non-zero by IF.

    5. For the purposes of input (KEY, ACCEPT, etc.) and output (EMIT, TYPE, etc.), the encoding between numbers and human-readable symbols is ISO646/IRV (ASCII) within the range from 32 to 126 (space to ~). EBCDIC is out (most "EBCDIC" computer systems support ASCII too). Outside that range, it is up to the implementation. The obvious implementation choice is to use ASCII control characters for the range from 0 to 31, at least for the "displayable" characters in that range (TAB, RETURN, LINEFEED, FORMFEED). However, this is not as clear-cut as it may seem, because of the variation between operating systems on the treatment of those characters. For example, some systems TAB to 4 character boundaries, others to 8 character boundaries, and others to preset tab stops. Some systems perform an automatic linefeed after a carriage return, others perform an automatic carriage return after a linefeed, and others do neither.

      The codes from 128 to 255 may eventually be standardized, either formally or informally, for use as international characters, such as the letters with diacritical marks found in many European languages. One such encoding is the 8-bit ISO Latin-1 character set. The computer marketplace at large will eventually decide which encoding set of those characters prevails. For Forth implementations running under an operating system (the majority of those running on standard platforms these days), most Forth implementors will probably choose to do whatever the system does, without performing any remapping within the domain of the Forth system itself.

    6. A Standard Program can depend on the ability to receive any character in the range 32 ... 126 through KEY, and similarly to display the same set of characters with EMIT. If a program must be able to receive or display any particular character outside that range, it can declare an environmental dependency on the ability to receive or display that character.

    7. A Standard Program cannot use control characters in definition names. However, a Standard System is not required to enforce this prohibition. Thus, existing systems that currently allow control characters in words names from BLOCK source may continue to allow them, and programs running on those systems will continue to work. In text file source, the parsing action with space as a delimiter (e.g., BL WORD) treats control characters the same as spaces. This effectively implies that you cannot use control characters in definition names from text-file source, since the text interpreter will treat the control characters as delimiters. Note that this "control-character folding" applies only when space is the delimiter, thus the phrase "CHAR ) WORD" may collect a string containing control characters.

  2. Storage and retrieval

    Characters are transferred from the data stack to memory by C! and from memory to the data stack by C@. A number of lower-significance bits equivalent to the implementation-dependent width of a character are transferred from a popped data stack entry to an address by the action of C! without affecting any bits which may comprise the higher-significance portion of the cell at the destination address; however, the action of C@ clears all higher-significance bits of the data stack entry which it pushes that are beyond the implementation-dependent width of a character (which may include implementation-defined display information in the higher-significance bits). The programmer should keep in mind that operating upon arbitrary stack entries with words intended for the character data type may result in truncation of such data.

  3. Manipulation on the stack

    In addition to C@ and C!, characters are moved to, from and upon the data stack by the following words:

  4. Additional operations

    The following mathematical operators are valid for character data:

    The following comparison and bitwise operators may be valid for characters, keeping in mind that display information cached in the most significant bits of characters in an implementation-defined fashion may have to be masked or otherwise dealt with:

A.3.1.3 Single-cell types

A single-cell stack entry viewed without regard to typing is the fundamental data type of Forth. All other data types are actually represented by one or more single-cell stack entries.

  1. Storage and retrieval

    Single-cell data are transferred from the stack to memory by !; from memory to the stack by @. All bits are transferred in both directions and no type checking of any sort is performed, nor does the Standard System check that a memory address used by ! or @ is properly aligned or properly sized to hold the datum thus transferred.

  2. Manipulation on the stack

    Here is a selection of the most important words which move single-cell data to, from and upon the data stack:

  3. Comparison operators

    The following comparison operators are universally valid for one or more single cells:

A.3.1.3.1 Flags
A FALSE flag is a single-cell datum with all bits unset, and a TRUE flag is a single-cell datum with all bits set. While Forth words which test flags accept any non-null bit pattern as true, there exists the concept of the well-formed flag. If an operation whose result is to be used as a flag may produce any bit-mask other than TRUE or FALSE, the recommended discipline is to convert the result to a well-formed flag by means of the Forth word 0<> so that the result of any subsequent logical operations on the flag will be predictable.

In addition to the words which move, fetch and store single-cell items, the following words are valid for operations on one or more flag data residing on the data stack:

A.3.1.3.2 Integers
A single-cell datum may be treated by a Standard Program as a signed integer. Moving and storing such data is performed as for any single-cell data. In addition to the universally-applicable operators for single-cell data specified above, the following mathematical and comparison operators are valid for single-cell signed integers:

Given the same number of bits, unsigned integers usually represent twice the number of absolute values representable by signed integers.

A single-cell datum may be treated by a Standard Program as an unsigned integer. Moving and storing such data is performed as for any single-cell data. In addition, the following mathematical and comparison operators are valid for single-cell unsigned integers:

A.3.1.3.3 Addresses
An address is uniquely represented as a single cell unsigned number and can be treated as such when being moved to, from, or upon the stack. Conversely, each unsigned number represents a unique address (which is not necessarily an address of accessible memory). This one-to-one relationship between addresses and unsigned numbers forces an equivalence between address arithmetic and the corresponding operations on unsigned numbers.

Several operators are provided specifically for address arithmetic:

and, if the floating-point word set is present:

A Standard Program may never assume a particular correspondence between a Forth address and the physical address to which it is mapped.

A.3.1.3.4 Counted strings

Forth 94 moved toward the consistent use of the "c-addr u" representation of strings on the stack. The use of the alternate "address of counted string" stack representation is discouraged. The traditional Forth words WORD and FIND continue to use the "address of counted string" representation for historical reasons. The new word C", added as a porting aid for existing programs, also uses the counted string representation.

Counted strings remain useful as a way to store strings in memory. This use is not discouraged, but when references to such strings appear on the stack, it is preferable to use the "c-addr u" representation.

A.3.1.3.5 Execution tokens
The association between an execution token and a definition is static. Once made, it does not change with changes in the search order or anything else. However it may not be unique, e.g., the phrases

' 1+ and
' CHAR+

might return the same value.

A.3.1.3.6 Error results

The term ior was originally defined to describe the result of an input/output operation. This was extended to include other operations.

A.3.1.4 Cell-pair types

  1. Storage and retrieval

    Two operators are provided to fetch and store cell pairs:

    2@ 2!

  2. Manipulation on the stack

    Additionally, these operators may be used to move cell pairs from, to and upon the stack:

  3. Comparison

    The following comparison operations are universally valid for cell pairs:

A.3.1.4.1 Double-Cell Integers
If a double-cell integer is to be treated as signed, the following comparison and mathematical operations are valid:

If a double-cell integer is to be treated as unsigned, the following comparison and mathematical operations are valid:

A.3.1.4.2 Character strings
See: A.3.1.3.4 Counted strings.

A.3.2 The Implementation environment

A.3.2.1 Numbers

Traditionally, Forth has been implemented on two's-complement machines where there is a one-to-one mapping of signed numbers to unsigned numbers — any single cell item can be viewed either as a signed or unsigned number. Indeed, the signed representation of any positive number is identical to the equivalent unsigned representation. Further, addresses are treated as unsigned numbers: there is no distinct pointer type. Arithmetic ordering on two's complement machines allows + and - to work on both signed and unsigned numbers. This arithmetic behavior is deeply embedded in common Forth practice.

As a consequence of these behaviors, the likely ranges of signed and unsigned numbers for implementations hosted on each of the permissible arithmetic architectures is:


Arithmetic architecture signed numbers unsigned numbers

Two's complement -n-1 to n 0 to 2n+1
One's complement -n to n 0 to n
Signed magnitude -n to n 0 to n

where n is the largest positive signed number. For all three architectures, signed numbers in the 0 to n range are bitwise identical to the corresponding unsigned number. Note that unsigned numbers on a signed magnitude machine are equivalent to signed non-negative numbers as a consequence of the forced correspondence between addresses and unsigned numbers and of the required behavior of + and -.

For reference, these number representations may be defined by the way that NEGATE is implemented:

two's complement: : NEGATE INVERT 1+ ;
one's complement: : NEGATE INVERT ;
signed-magnitude: : NEGATE HIGH-BIT XOR ;

where HIGH-BIT is a bit mask with only the most-significant bit set. Note that all of these number systems agree on the representation of non-negative numbers.

Per 3.2.1.1 Internal number representation and 6.1.0270 0=, the implementor must ensure that no standard or supported word return negative zero for any numeric (non-Boolean or flag) result. Many existing programmer assumptions will be violated otherwise.

There is no requirement to implement circular unsigned arithmetic, nor to set the range of unsigned numbers to the full size of a cell. There is historical precedent for limiting the range of u to that of +n, which is permissible when the cell size is greater than 16 bits.

A.3.2.1.2 Digit conversion
For example, an implementation might convert the characters "a" through "z" identically to the characters "A" through "Z", or it might treat the characters " [ " through " " as additional digits with decimal values 36 through 71, respectively.

A.3.2.2 Arithmetic

A.3.2.2.1 Integer division
The Forth-79 Standard specifies that the signed division operators (/, /MOD, MOD, */MOD, and */) round non-integer quotients towards zero (symmetric division). Forth 83 changed the semantics of these operators to round towards negative infinity (floored division). Some in the Forth community have declined to convert systems and applications from the Forth-79 to the Forth-83 divide. To resolve this issue, a Forth-2012 system is permitted to supply either floored or symmetric operators. In addition, a standard system must provide a floored division primitive (FM/MOD), a symmetric division primitive (SM/REM), and a mixed precision multiplication operator (M*).

This compromise protects the investment made in current Forth applications; Forth-79 and Forth-83 programs are automatically compliant with Forth 94 with respect to division. In practice, the rounding direction rarely matters to applications. However, if a program requires a specific rounding direction, it can use the floored division primitive FM/MOD or the symmetric division primitive SM/REM to construct a division operator of the desired flavor. This simple technique can be used to convert Forth-79 and Forth-83 programs to Forth 94 without any analysis of the original programs.

A.3.2.2.2 Other integer operations
Whether underflow occurs depends on the data-type of the result. For example, the phrase 1 2 - underflows if the result is unsigned and produces the valid signed result -1.

A.3.2.3 Stacks

The only data type in Forth which has concrete rather than abstract existence is the stack entry. Even this primitive typing Forth only enforces by the hard reality of stack underflow or overflow. The programmer must have a clear idea of the number of stack entries to be consumed by the execution of a word and the number of entries that will be pushed back to a stack by the execution of a word. The observation of anomalous occurrences on the data stack is the first line of defense whereby the programmer may recognize errors in an application program. It is also worth remembering that multiple stack errors caused by erroneous application code are frequently of equal and opposite magnitude, causing complementary (and deceptive) results.

For these reasons and a host of other reasons, the one unambiguous, uncontroversial, and indispensable programming discipline observed since the earliest days of Forth is that of providing a stack diagram for all additions to the application dictionary with the exception of static constructs such as VARIABLEs and CONSTANTs.

A.3.2.3.2 Control-flow stack
The simplest use of control-flow words is to implement the basic control structures shown in figure A.1.

Figure A.1: The basic control-flow patterns

In control flow every branch, or transfer of control, must terminate at some destination. A natural implementation uses a stack to remember the origin of forward branches and the destination of backward branches. At a minimum, only the location of each origin or destination must be indicated, although other implementation-dependent information also may be maintained.

An origin is the location of the branch itself. A destination is where control would continue if the branch were taken. A destination is needed to resolve the branch address for each origin, and conversely, if every control-flow path is completed no unused destinations can remain.

With the addition of just three words (AHEAD, CS-ROLL and CS-PICK), the basic control-flow words supply the primitives necessary to compile a variety of transportable control structures. The abilities required are compilation of forward and backward conditional and unconditional branches and compile-time management of branch origins and destinations. Table A.1 shows the desired behavior.

Table A.1: Compilation behavior of control-flow words

at compile-time,
word: supplies: resolves: is used to:

IF orig mark origin of forward conditional branch
THEN orig resolve IF or AHEAD
BEGIN dest mark backward destination
AGAIN dest resolve with backward unconditional branch
UNTIL dest resolve with backward conditional branch
AHEAD orig mark origin of forward unconditional branch
CS-PICK copy item on control-flow stack
CS-ROLL reorder items on control-flow stack

The requirement that control-flow words are properly balanced by other control-flow words makes reasonable the description of a compile-time implementation-defined control-flow stack. There is no prescription as to how the control-flow stack is implemented, e.g., data stack, linked list, special array. Each element of the control-flow stack mentioned above is the same size.

With these tools, the remaining basic control-structure elements, shown in figure A.2, can be defined. The stack notation used here for immediate words is ( compilation / execution ).

: WHILE ( dest -- orig dest / flag -- )
   \ conditional exit from loops
   POSTPONE IF           \ conditional forward brach
    1 CS-ROLL            \ keep dest on top
; IMMEDIATE



: REPEAT ( orig dest -- / -- )
   \ resolve a single WHILE and return to BEGIN
   POSTPONE AGAIN        \ uncond. backward branch to dest
    POSTPONE THEN        \ resolve forward branch from orig
; IMMEDIATE



: ELSE ( orig1 -- orig2 / -- )
   \ resolve IF supplying alternate execution
   POSTPONE AHEAD        \ unconditional forward branch orig2
   1 CS-ROLL             \ put orig1 back on top
    POSTPONE THEN        \ resolve forward branch from orig1
; IMMEDIATE

Figure A.2: Additional basic control-flow patterns

Forth control flow provides a solution for well-known problems with strictly structured programming.

The basic control structures can be supplemented, as shown in the examples in figure A.3, with additional WHILEs in BEGIN ... UNTIL and BEGIN ... WHILE ... REPEAT structures. However, for each additional WHILE there must be a THEN at the end of the structure. THEN completes the syntax with WHILE and indicates where to continue execution when the WHILE transfers control. The use of more than one additional WHILE is possible but not common. Note that if the user finds this use of THEN undesirable, an alias with a more likable name could be defined.

Additional actions may be performed between the control flow word (the REPEAT or UNTIL) and the THEN that matches the additional WHILE. Further, if additional actions are desired for normal termination and early termination, the alternative actions may be separated by the ordinary Forth ELSE. The termination actions are all specified after the body of the loop.

Figure A.3: Extended control-flow patterns

Note that REPEAT creates an anomaly when matching the WHILE with ELSE or THEN, most notably when compared with the BEGIN...UNTIL case. That is, there will be one less ELSE or THEN than there are WHILEs because REPEAT resolves one THEN. As above, if the user finds this count mismatch undesirable, REPEAT could be replaced in-line by its own definition.

Other loop-exit control-flow words, and even other loops, can be defined. The only requirements are that the control-flow stack is properly maintained and manipulated.

The simple implementation of the CASE structure below is an example of control structure extension. Note the maintenance of the data stack to prevent interference with the possible control-flow stack usage.

0 CONSTANT CASE IMMEDIATE ( init count of OFs )



: OF ( #of -- orig #of+1 / x -- )
   1+                    ( count OFs )
   >R                    ( move off the stack in case the control-flow )
                         ( stack is the data stack. )
   POSTPONE OVER POSTPONE = ( copy and test case value)
   POSTPONE IF           ( add orig to control flow stack )
   POSTPONE DROP         ( discards case value if = )
    R>                   ( we can bring count back now )
; IMMEDIATE



: ENDOF ( orig1 #of -- orig2 #of )
   >R                    ( move off the stack in case the control-flow )
                         ( stack is the data stack. )
   POSTPONE ELSE
    R>                   ( we can bring count back now )
; IMMEDIATE



: ENDCASE ( orig1..orign #of -- )
   POSTPONE DROP         ( discard case value )
   0 ?DO
      POSTPONE THEN
    LOOP
; IMMEDIATE

A.3.2.3.3 Return stack
The restrictions in section 3.2.3.3 Return stack are necessary if implementations are to be allowed to place loop parameters on the return stack.

A.3.2.6 Environmental queries

The size in address units of various data types may be determined by phrases such as 1 CHARS. Similarly, alignment may be determined by phrases such as 1 ALIGNED.

The environmental queries are divided into two groups: those that always produce the same value and those that might not. The former groups include entries such as MAX-N. This information is fixed by the hardware or by the design of the Forth system; a user is guaranteed that asking the question once is sufficient.

The other, now obsolescent, group of queries are for things that may legitimately change over time. For example an application might test for the presence of the Double Number word set using an environment query. If it is missing, the system could invoke a system-dependent process to load the word set. The system is permitted to change ENVIRONMENT?'s database so that subsequent queries about it indicate that it is present.

Note that a query that returns an "unknown" response could produce a "known" result on a subsequent query.

A.3.2.7 Obsolescent Environmental Queries

When reviewing the Forth 94 Standard, the question of adapting the word set queries had to be addressed. Despite the recommendation in Forth 94, word set queries have not been supported in a meaningful way by many systems. Consequently, these queries are not used by many programmers. The committee was unwilling to exacerbate the problem by introducing additional queries for the revised word sets. The committee has therefore declared the word set environment queries (see table 3.5) as obsolescent with the intention of removing them altogether in the next revision. They are retained in this standard to support existing Forth 94 programs. New programs should not use them.

A.3.2.8 Extension queries

A.3.3 The Forth dictionary

A Standard Program may redefine a standard word with a non-standard definition. The program is still standard (since it can be built on any Standard System), but the effect is to make the combined entity (Standard System plus Standard Program) a non-standard system.

A.3.3.1 Name space

A.3.3.1.2 Definition names
The language in this section is there to ensure the portability of Standard Programs. If a program uses something outside the Standard that it does not provide itself, there is no guarantee that another implementation will have what the program needs to run. There is no intent whatsoever to imply that all Forth programs will be somehow lacking or inferior because they are not standard; some of the finest jewels of the programmer's art will be non-standard. At the same time, the committee is trying to ensure that a program labeled "Standard" will meet certain expectations, particularly with regard to portability.

In many system environments the input source is unable to supply certain non-graphic characters due to external factors, such as the use of those characters for flow control or editing. In addition, when interpreting from a text file, the parsing function specifically treats non-graphic characters like spaces; thus words received by the text interpreter will not contain embedded non-graphic characters. To allow implementations in such environments to call themselves standard, this minor restriction on Standard Programs is necessary.

A Standard System is allowed to permit the creation of definition names containing non-graphic characters. Historically, such names were used for keyboard editing functions and "invisible" words.

A.3.3.2 Code space

A.3.3.3 Data space

The words >IN, BASE, BLK, SCR, SOURCE, SOURCE-ID, STATE contain information used by the Forth system in its operation and may be of use to the application. Any assumption made by the application about data available in the Forth system it did not store other than the data just listed is an environmental dependency.

There is no point in specifying (in the Standard) both what is and what is not addressable. A Standard Program may NOT address:

The read-only restrictions arise because some Forth systems run from ROM and some share I/O buffers with other users or systems. Portable programs cannot know which areas are affected, hence the general restrictions.

A.3.3.3.1 Address alignment

Some processors have restrictions on the addresses that can be used by memory access instructions. For example, some architectures require 16-bit data to be loaded or stored only at even addresses and 32-bit data only at addresses that are multiples of four.

An implementor can handle these alignment restrictions in one of two ways. Forth's memory access words (@, !, +!, etc.) could be implemented in terms of smaller-width access instructions, which have no alignment restrictions. For example, on a system with 16-bit cells, @ could be implemented with two byte-fetch instructions and a reassembly of the bytes into a 16-bit cell. Although this conceals hardware restrictions from the programmer, it is inefficient, and may have unintended side effects in some hardware environments. An alternate implementation could define each memory-access word using the native instructions that most closely match the word's function. The 16-bit cell system could implement @ using the processor's 16-bit fetch instruction, in this case, the responsibility for giving @ a correctly-aligned address falls on the programmer. A portable program must assume that alignment may be required and follow the requirements of this section.

A.3.3.3.2 Contiguous regions

The data space of a Forth system comes in discontiguous regions. The location of some regions is provided by the system, some by the program. Data space is contiguous within regions, allowing address arithmetic to generate valid addresses only within a single region. A Standard Program cannot make any assumptions about the relative placement of multiple regions in memory.

Section 3.3.3.2 does prescribe conditions under which contiguous regions of data space may be obtained. For example:

CREATE TABLE    1 C, 2 C, ALIGN 1000 , 2000 ,

makes a table whose address is returned by TABLE. In accessing this table,

TABLE C@ will return 1
TABLE CHAR+ C@ will return 2
TABLE 2 CHARS + ALIGNED @ will return 1000
TABLE 2 CHARS + ALIGNED CELL+ @ will return 2000.

Similarly,

CREATE DATA    1000 ALLOT

makes an array 1000 address units in size. A more portable strategy would define the array in application units, such as:

500 CONSTANT NCELLS
CREATE CELL-DATA NCELLS CELLS ALLOT

This array can be indexed like this:

: LOOK    NCELLS 0 DO CELL-DATA I CELLS + ? LOOP ;

A.3.3.3.6 Other transient regions
In many existing Forth systems, these areas are at HERE or just beyond it, hence the many restrictions.

(2*n)+2 is the size of a character string containing the unpunctuated binary representation of the maximum double number with a leading minus sign and a trailing space.

Implementation note: Since the minimum value of n is 16, the absolute minimum size of the pictured numeric output string is 34 characters. But if your implementation has a larger n, you must also increase the size of the pictured numeric output string.

A.3.4 The Forth text interpreter

A.3.4.3 Semantics

The "initiation semantics" correspond to the code that is executed upon entering a definition, analogous to the code executed by EXIT upon leaving a definition. The "run-time semantics" correspond to code fragments, such as literals or branches, that are compiled inside colon definitions by words with explicit compilation semantics.

In a Forth cross compiler, the execution semantics may be specified to occur in the host system only, the target system only, or in both systems. For example, it may be appropriate for words such as CELLS to execute on the host system returning a value describing the target, for colon definitions to execute only on the target, and for CONSTANT and VARIABLE to have execution behaviors on both systems. Details of cross compiler behavior are beyond the scope of this standard.

A.3.4.3.2 Interpretation semantics

For a variety of reasons, this standard does not define interpretation semantics for every word. Examples of these words are >R, .", DO, and IF. Nothing in this Standard precludes an implementation from providing interpretation semantics for these words, such as interactive control-flow words. However, a Standard Program may not use them in interpretation state.

A.3.4.5 Compilation

Compiler recursion at the definition level consumes excessive resources, especially to support locals. The committee does not believe that the benefits justify the costs. Nesting definitions is also not common practice and won't work on many systems.

A.4 Documentation requirements

A.4.1 System documentation

A.4.2 Program documentation

A.5 Compliance and labeling

A.5.1 Forth-2012 systms

Section 5.1 defines the criteria that a system must meet in order to justify the label "Forth-2012 System". Briefly, the minimum requirement is that the system must "implement" the Core word set. There are several ways in which this requirement may be met. The most obvious is that all Core words may be in a pre-compiled kernel. This is not the only way of satisfying the requirement, however. For example, some words may be provided in source blocks or files with instructions explaining how to add them to the system if they are needed. So long as the words are provided in such a way that the user can obtain access to them with a clear and straightforward procedure, they may be considered to be present.

A Forth cross compiler has many characteristics in common with a standard system, in that both use similar compiling tools to process a program. However, in order to fully specify a Forth-2012 standard cross compiler it would be necessary to address complex issues dealing with compilation and execution semantics in both host and target environments as well as ROMability issues. The level of effort to do this properly has proved to be impractical at this time. As a result, although it may be possible for a Forth cross compiler to correctly prepare a Forth-2012 standard program for execution in a target environment, it is inappropriate for a cross compiler to be labeled a Forth-2012 standard system.

A.5.2 Forth-2012 programs

A.5.2.2 Program labeling

Declaring an environmental dependency should not be considered undesirable, merely an acknowledgment that the author has taken advantage of some assumed architecture. For example, most computers in common use are based on two's complement binary arithmetic. By acknowledging an environmental dependency on this architecture, a programmer becomes entitled to use the number -1 to represent all bits set without significantly restricting the portability of the program.

Because all programs require space for data and instructions, and time to execute those instructions, they depend on the presence of an environment providing those resources. It is impossible to predict how little of some of these resources (e.g. stack space) might be necessary to perform some task, so this standard does not do so.

On the other hand, as a program requires increasing levels of resources, there will probably be sucessively fewer systems on which it will execute sucessfully. An algorithm requiring an array of 109 cells might run on fewer computers than one requiring only 103.

Since there is also no way of knowing what minimum level of resources will be implemented in a system useful for at least some tasks, any program performing real work labeled simply a "Standard Forth-2012 Program" is unlikely to be labeled correctly.

A.6 Glossary

In this and following sections we present rationales for the handling of specific words: why we included them, why we placed them in certain word sets, or why we specified their names or meaning as we did.

Words in this section are organized by word set, retaining their index numbers for easy cross-referencing to the glossary.

Historically, many Forth systems have been written in Forth. Many of the words in Forth originally had as their primary purpose support of the Forth system itself. For example, WORD and FIND are often used as the principle instruments of the Forth text interpreter, and CREATE in many systems is the primitive for building dictionary entries. In defining words such as these in a standard way, we have endeavored not to do so in such a way as to preclude their use by implementors. One of the features of Forth that has endeared it to its users is that the same tools that are used to implement the system are available to the application programmer — a result of this approach is the compactness and efficiency that characterizes most Forth implementations.

A.6.1.0070
'
Typical use: ... ' name.

Many Forth systems use a state-smart tick. Many do not. Forth-2012 follows the usage of Forth 94.

See:
A.6.1.0080
(
Typical use: ... ( ccc) ...
A.6.1.0140
+LOOP
Typical use: : X ... limit first DO ... step +LOOP ;
A.6.1.0150
,
The use of , (comma) for compiling execution tokens is not portable.

See: 6.2.0945 COMPILE,.

A.6.1.0190
."
Typical use: : X ... ." ccc" ... ;

An implementation may define interpretation semantics for ." if desired. In one plausible implementation, interpreting ." would display the delimited message. In another plausible implementation, interpreting ." would compile code to display the message later. In still another plausible implementation, interpreting ." would be treated as an exception. Given this variation a Standard Program may not use ." while interpreting. Similarly, a Standard Program may not compile POSTPONE ." inside a new word, and then use that word while interpreting.

A.6.1.0450
:
Typical use: : name ... ;

In Forth 83, this word was specified to alter the search order. This specification is explicitly removed in this standard. We believe that in most cases this has no effect; however, systems that allow many search orders found the Forth-83 behavior of colon very undesirable.

Note that colon does not itself invoke the compiler. Colon sets compilation state so that later words in the parse area are compiled.

A.6.1.0460
;
Typical use: : name ... ;

One function performed by both ; and ;CODE is to allow the current definition to be found in the dictionary. If the current definition was created by :NONAME the current definition has no definition name and thus cannot be found in the dictionary. If :NONAME is implemented the Forth compiler must maintain enough information about the current definition to allow ; and ;CODE to determine whether or not any action must be taken to allow it to be found.

A.6.1.0550
>BODY
a-addr is the address that HERE would have returned had it been executed immediately after the execution of the CREATE that defined xt.
A.6.1.0680
ABORT"
Typical use: : X ... test ABORT" ccc" ... ;
A.6.1.0695
ACCEPT
Specification of a non-zero, positive integer count (+n1) for ACCEPT allows some implementors to continue their practice of using a zero or negative value as a flag to trigger special behavior. Insofar as such behavior is outside the standard, Standard Programs cannot depend upon it, but the committee doesn't wish to preclude it unnecessarily. Because actual values are almost always small integers, no functionality is impaired by this restriction.

It is recommended that all non-graphic characters be reserved for editing or control functions and not be stored in the input string.

Because external system hardware and software may perform the ACCEPT function, when a line terminator is received the action of the cursor, and therefore the display, is implementation-defined. It is recommended that the cursor remain immediately following the entered text after a line terminator is received.

A.6.1.0705
ALIGN
In this standard we have attempted to provide transportability across various CPU architectures. One of the frequent causes of transportability problems is the requirement of cell-aligned addresses on some CPUs. On these systems, ALIGN and ALIGNED may be required to build and traverse data structures built with C,. Implementors may define these words as no-ops on systems for which they aren't functional.
A.6.1.0760
BEGIN
Typical use:

   : X ... BEGIN ... test UNTIL ;

or

   : X ... BEGIN ... test WHILE ... REPEAT ;

A.6.1.0770
BL
Because space is used throughout Forth as the standard delimiter, this word is the only way a program has to find and use the system value of "space". The value of a space character can not be obtained with CHAR, for instance.
A.6.1.0880
CELL+
As with ALIGN and ALIGNED, the words CELLS and CELL+ were added to aid in transportability across systems with different cell sizes. They are intended to be used in manipulating indexes and addresses in integral numbers of cell-widths. Example:
2VARIABLE DATA

0 100 DATA 2!

DATA @ . 100

DATA CELL+ @ . 0

A.6.1.0890
CELLS
Example:
CREATE NUMBERS 100 CELLS ALLOT
Allots space in the array NUMBERS for 100 cells of data.
A.6.1.0895
CHAR
Typical use: ... CHAR A CONSTANT "A" ...
A.6.1.0950
CONSTANT
Typical use: ... DECIMAL 10 CONSTANT TEN ...
A.6.1.1000
CREATE
The data-field address of a word defined by CREATE is given by the data-space pointer immediately following the execution of CREATE.

Reservation of data field space is typically done with ALLOT.

Typical use: ... CREATE SOMETHING ...

A.6.1.1240
DO
Typical use:

   : X ... limit first DO ... LOOP ;

or

   : X ... limit first DO ... step +LOOP ;

A.6.1.1250
DOES>
Typical use: : X ... DOES> ... ;

Following DOES>, a Standard Program may not make any assumptions regarding the ability to find either the name of the definition containing the DOES> or any previous definition whose name may be concealed by it. DOES> effectively ends one definition and begins another as far as local variables and control-flow structures are concerned. The compilation behavior makes it clear that the user is not entitled to place DOES> inside any control-flow structures.

A.6.1.1310
ELSE
Typical use: : X ... test IF ... ELSE ... THEN ;
A.6.1.1345
ENVIRONMENT?
In a Standard System that contains only the Core word set, effective use of ENVIRONMENT? requires either its use within a definition, or the use of user-supplied auxiliary definitions. The Core word set lacks both a direct method for collecting a string in interpretation state (11.6.1.2165 S" is in an optional word set) and also a means to test the returned flag in interpretation state (e.g. the optional 15.6.2.2532 [IF]).
A.6.1.1380
EXIT
Typical use: : X ... test IF ... EXIT THEN ... ;
A.6.1.1550
FIND
One of the more difficult issues which the committee took on was the problem of divorcing the specification of implementation mechanisms from the specification of the Forth language. Three basic implementation approaches can be quickly enumerated:

  1. Threaded code mechanisms. These are the traditional approaches to implementing Forth, but other techniques may be used.

  2. Subroutine threading with "macro-expansion" (code copying). Short routines, like the code for DUP, are copied into a definition rather than compiling a JSR reference.

  3. Native coding with optimization. This may include stack optimization (replacing such phrases as SWAP ROT + with one or two machine instructions, for example), parallelization (the trend in the newer RISC chips is to have several functional subunits which can execute in parallel), and so on.

The initial requirement (inherited from Forth 83) that compilation addresses be compiled into the dictionary disallowed type 2 and type 3 implementations.

Type 3 mechanisms and optimizations of type 2 implementations were hampered by the explicit specification of immediacy or non-immediacy of all standard words. POSTPONE allowed de-specification of immediacy or non-immediacy for all but a few Forth words whose behavior must be STATE-independent.

One type 3 implementation, Charles Moore's cmForth, has both compiling and interpreting versions of many Forth words. At the present, this appears to be a common approach for type 3 implementations. The committee felt that this implementation approach must be allowed. Consequently, it is possible that words without interpretation semantics can be found only during compilation, and other words may exist in two versions: a compiling version and an interpreting version. Hence the values returned by FIND may depend on STATE, and ' and ['] may be unable to find words without interpretation semantics.

A.6.1.1561
FM/MOD
By introducing the requirement for "floored" division, Forth 83 produced much controversy and concern on the part of those who preferred the more common practice followed in other languages of implementing division according to the behavior of the host CPU, which is most often symmetric (rounded toward zero). In attempting to find a compromise position, this standard provides primitives for both common varieties, floored and symmetric (see SM/REM). FM/MOD is the floored version.

The committee considered providing two complete sets of explicitly named division operators, and declined to do so on the grounds that this would unduly enlarge and complicate the standard. Instead, implementors may define the normal division words in terms of either FM/MOD or SM/REM providing they document their choice. People wishing to have explicitly named sets of operators are encouraged to do so. FM/MOD may be used, for example, to define:

: /_MOD ( n1 n2 -- n3 n4) >R S>D R> FM/MOD ;

: /_ ( n1 n2 -- n3) /_MOD SWAP DROP ;

: _MOD ( n1 n2 -- n3) /_MOD DROP ;

: */_MOD ( n1 n2 n3 -- n4 n5) >R M* R> FM/MOD ;

: */_ ( n1 n2 n3 -- n4 ) */_MOD SWAP DROP ;

A.6.1.1700
IF
Typical use:

   : X ... test IF ... THEN ... ;

or

   : X ... test IF ... ELSE ... THEN ... ;

A.6.1.1710
IMMEDIATE
Typical use: : X ... ; IMMEDIATE
A.6.1.1720
INVERT
The word NOT was originally provided in Forth as a flag operator to make control structures readable. Under its intended usage the following two definitions would produce identical results:

: ONE ( flag -- )
   IF ." true" ELSE ." false" THEN ;

: TWO ( flag -- )
   NOT IF ." false" ELSE ." true" THEN ;

This was common usage prior to the Forth-83 Standard which redefined NOT as a cell-wide one's-complement operation, functionally equivalent to the phrase -1 XOR. At the same time, the data type manipulated by this word was changed from a flag to a cell-wide collection of bits and the standard value for true was changed from "1" (rightmost bit only set) to "-1" (all bits set). As these definitions of TRUE and NOT were incompatible with their previous definitions, many Forth users continue to rely on the old definitions. Hence both versions are in common use.

Therefore, usage of NOT cannot be standardized at this time. The two traditional meanings of NOT — that of negating the sense of a flag and that of doing a one's complement operation — are made available by 0= and INVERT, respectively.

A.6.1.1730
J
J may only be used with a nested DO ... LOOP, DO ... +LOOP, ?DO ... LOOP, or ?DO ... +LOOP, for example, in the form:

   : X ... DO ... DO ... J ... LOOP ... +LOOP ... ;

A.6.1.1750
KEY
Use of KEY indicates that the application is processing primitive characters. Some input devices, e.g., keyboards, may provide more information than can be represented as a primitive character and such an event may be received as an implementation-specific sequence of primitive characters.

See A.10.6.2.1305 EKEY.

A.6.1.1760
LEAVE
Note that LEAVE immediately exits the loop. No words following LEAVE within the loop will be executed. Typical use:

   : X ... DO ... IF ... LEAVE THEN ... LOOP ... ;

A.6.1.1780
LITERAL
Typical use: : X ... [ x ] LITERAL ... ;
A.6.1.1800
LOOP
Typical use:

   : X ... limit first DO ... LOOP ... ;

or

   : X ... limit first ?DO ... LOOP ... ;

A.6.1.1810
M*
This word is a useful early step in calculation, going to extra precision conveniently. It has been in use since the Forth systems of the early 1970's.
A.6.1.1900
MOVE
CMOVE and CMOVE> are the primary move operators in Forth 83. They specify a behavior for moving that implies propagation if the move is suitably invoked. In some hardware, this specific behavior cannot be achieved using the best move instruction. Further, CMOVE and CMOVE> move characters; Forth needs a move instruction capable of dealing with address units. Thus MOVE has been defined and added to the Core word set, and CMOVE and CMOVE> have been moved to the String word set.
A.6.1.2033
POSTPONE
Typical use:

   : ENDIF POSTPONE THEN ; IMMEDIATE

   : X ... IF ... ENDIF ... ;

POSTPONE replaces most of the functionality of COMPILE and [COMPILE]. COMPILE and [COMPILE] are used for the same purpose: postpone the compilation behavior of the next word in the parse area. COMPILE was designed to be applied to non-immediate words and [COMPILE] to immediate words. This burdens the programmer with needing to know which words in a system are immediate. Consequently, Forth standards have had to specify the immediacy or non-immediacy of all words covered by the standard. This unnecessarily constrains implementors.

A second problem with COMPILE is that some programmers have come to expect and exploit a particular implementation, namely:

   : COMPILE R> DUP @ , CELL+ >R ;

This implementation will not work on native code Forth systems. In a native code Forth using inline code expansion and peephole optimization, the size of the object code produced varies; this information is difficult to communicate to a "dumb" COMPILE. A "smart" (i.e., immediate) COMPILE would not have this problem, but this was forbidden in previous standards.

For these reasons, COMPILE has not been included in the standard and [COMPILE] has been moved in favor of POSTPONE. Additional discussion can be found in Hayes, J.R., "Postpone", Proceedings of the 1989 Rochester Forth Conference.

A.6.1.2120
RECURSE
Typical use: : X ... RECURSE ... ;

This is Forth's recursion operator; in some implementations it is called MYSELF. The usual example is the coding of the factorial function.

: FACTORIAL ( +n1 -- +n2)
   DUP 2 < IF DROP 1 EXIT THEN
   DUP 1- RECURSE *
;

n2 = n1(n1-1)(n1-2)...(2)(1), the product of n1 with all positive integers less than itself (as a special case, zero factorial equals one). While beloved of computer scientists, recursion makes unusually heavy use of both stacks and should therefore be used with caution. See alternate definition in A.6.1.2140 REPEAT.

A.6.1.2140
REPEAT
Typical use:
: FACTORIAL ( +n1 -- +n2 )
   DUP 2 < IF DROP 1 EXIT THEN
   DUP
   BEGIN DUP 2 > WHILE
   1- SWAP OVER * SWAP
   REPEAT DROP
;
A.6.1.2165
S"
Typical use: : X ... S" ccc" ... ;
A.6.1.2214
SM/REM
See the previous discussion of division under FM/MOD. SM/REM is the symmetric-division primitive, which allows programs to define the following symmetric-division operators:

: /-REM ( n1 n2 -- n3 n4 ) >R S>D R> SM/REM ;

: /- ( n1 n2 -- n3 ) /-REM SWAP DROP ;

: -REM ( n1 n2 -- n3 ) /-REM DROP ;

: */-REM ( n1 n2 n3 -- n4 n5 ) >R M* R> SM/REM ;

: */- ( n1 n2 n3 -- n4 ) */-REM SWAP DROP ;

A.6.1.2216
SOURCE
SOURCE simplifies the process of directly accessing the input buffer by hiding the differences between its location for different input sources. This also gives implementors more flexibility in their implementation of buffering mechanisms for different input sources. The committee moved away from an input buffer specification consisting of a collection of individual variables.
A.6.1.2250
STATE
Although EVALUATE, LOAD, INCLUDE-FILE and INCLUDED are not listed as words which alter STATE, the text interpreted by any one of these words could include one or more words which explicitly alter STATE. EVALUATE, LOAD, INCLUDE-FILE and INCLUDED do not in themselves alter STATE.

STATE does not nest with text interpreter nesting. For example, the code sequence:

   : FOO S" ]" EVALUATE ;      FOO

will leave the system in compilation state. Similarly, after LOADing a block containing ], the system will be in compilation state.

Note that ] does not affect the parse area and that the only effect that : has on the parse area is to parse a word. This entitles a program to use these words to set the state with known side-effects on the parse area. For example:

   : NOP : POSTPONE ; IMMEDIATE ;

   NOP ALIGN
   NOP ALIGNED

Some non-compliant systems have ] invoke a compiler loop in addition to setting STATE. Such a system would inappropriately attempt to compile the second use of NOP.

A.6.1.2270
THEN
Typical use:

   : X ... test IF ... THEN ... ;

or

   : X ... test IF ... ELSE ... THEN ... ;

A.6.1.2380
UNLOOP
Typical use:
: X ...
   limit first DO
   ... test IF ... UNLOOP EXIT THEN ...
   LOOP ...
;

UNLOOP allows the use of EXIT within the context of DO ... LOOP and related do-loop constructs. UNLOOP as a function has been called UNDO. UNLOOP is more indicative of the action: nothing gets undone — we simply stop doing it.

A.6.1.2390
UNTIL
Typical use: : X ... BEGIN ... test UNTIL ... ;
A.6.1.2410
VARIABLE
Typical use: VARIABLE XYZ
A.6.1.2430
WHILE
Typical use: : X ... BEGIN ... test WHILE ... REPEAT ... ;
A.6.1.2450
WORD
Typical use: char WORD ccc<char>
A.6.1.2500
[
Typical use: : X ... [ 4321 ] LITERAL ... ;
A.6.1.2510
[']
Typical use: : X ... ['] name ... ;

See: A.6.1.1550 FIND.

A.6.1.2520
[CHAR]
Typical use: : X ... [CHAR] c ... ;
A.6.1.2540
]
Typical use: : X ... [ 4321 ] LITERAL ... ;

A.7.2 Core extension words

The words in this collection fall into several categories:

Because of the varied justifications for inclusion of these words, the committee does not encourage implementors to offer the complete collection, but to select those words deemed most valuable to their clientele.

A.6.2.0200
.(
Typical use: .( ccc)
A.6.2.0210
.R
In .R, "R" is short for RIGHT.
A.6.2.0340
2>R
The primary advantage of 2>R is that it puts the top stack entry on the top of the return stack. For instance, a double-cell number may be transferred to the return stack and still have the most significant cell accessible on the top of the return stack.
A.6.2.0410
2R>
Note that 2R> is not equivalent to R> R>. Instead, it mirrors the action of 2>R (see A.6.2.0340).
A.6.2.0455
:NONAME
Typical use:

   DEFER print
   :NONAME ( n -- ) . ; IS print

Note:
RECURSE and DOES> are allowed within a :NONAME definition.
A.6.2.0620
?DO
Typical use:

   : X ... ?DO ... LOOP ... ;

A.6.2.0700
AGAIN
Typical use: : X ... BEGIN ... AGAIN ... ;

Unless word-sequence has a way to terminate, this is an endless loop.

A.6.2.0825
BUFFER:
BUFFER: provides a means of defining an uninitialized buffer. In systems that use a single memory space, this can effectively be defined as:

: BUFFER: ( u "<name>" -- ; -- addr )
   CREATE ALLOT
;

However, many systems profit from a separation of uninitialized and initialized data areas. Such systems can implement BUFFER: so that it allocates memory from a separate uninitialized memory area. Embedded systems can take advantage of the lack of initialization of the memory area while hosted systems are permitted to ALLOCATE a buffer. A system may select a region of memory for performance reasons. A detailed knowledge of the memory allocation within the system is required to provide a version of BUFFER: that can take advantage of the system.

It should be noted that the memory buffer provided by BUFFER: is not initialized by the system and that if the application requires it to be initialized, it is the responsibility of the application to initialize it.

A.6.2.0855
C"
Typical use: : X ... C" ccc" ... ;

See: A.3.1.3.4 Counted strings.

A.6.2.0873
CASE
Typical use:
: X ...
   CASE
   test1 OF ... ENDOF
   testn OF ... ENDOF
   ... ( default )
   ENDCASE ...
;
A.6.2.0945
COMPILE,
COMPILE, is the compilation equivalent of EXECUTE.

In traditional threaded-code implementations, compilation is performed by , (comma). This usage is not portable; it doesn't work for subroutine-threaded, native code, or relocatable implementations. Use of COMPILE, is portable.

In most systems it is possible to implement COMPILE, so it will generate code that is optimized to the same extent as code that is generated by the normal compilation process. However, in some implementations there are two different "tokens" corresponding to a particular definition name: the normal "execution token" that is used while interpreting or with EXECUTE, and another "compilation token" that is used while compiling. It is not always possible to obtain the compilation token from the execution token. In these implementations, COMPILE, might not generate code that is as efficient as normally compiled code.

The intention is that COMPILE, can be used as follows to write the classic interpreter/compiler loop:

...                                                 ( c-addr )
FIND ?DUP IF                                     ( xt +-1 )
   STATE @ IF                                     ( xt +-1 )
     0> IF EXECUTE ELSE COMPILE, THEN   ( ??? )
   ELSE                                            ( xt +-1 )
     DROP EXECUTE                                ( ??? )
   THEN
ELSE                                              ( c-addr )
   ( whatever you do for an undefined word )
THEN
...

Thus the interpretation semantics are left undefined, as COMPILE, will not be executed during interpretation.

A.6.2.1342
ENDCASE
Typical use:
: X ...
   CASE
   test1 OF ... ENDOF
   testn OF ... ENDOF
   ... ( default )
   ENDCASE ...
;
A.6.2.1343
ENDOF
Typical use:
: X ...
   CASE
   test1 OF ... ENDOF
   testn OF ... ENDOF
   ... ( default )
   ENDCASE ...
;
A.6.2.1850
MARKER
As dictionary implementations have become more elaborate and in some cases have used multiple address spaces, FORGET has become prohibitively difficult or impossible to implement on many Forth systems. MARKER greatly eases the problem by making it possible for the system to remember "landmark information" in advance that specifically marks the spots where the dictionary may at some future time have to be rearranged.
A.6.2.1950
OF
Typical use:
: X ...
   CASE
   test1 OF ... ENDOF
   testn OF ... ENDOF
   ... ( default )
   ENDCASE ...
;
A.6.2.2000
PAD
PAD has been available as scratch storage for strings since the earliest Forth implementations. It was brought to our attention that many programmers are reluctant to use PAD, fearing incompatibilities with system uses. PAD is specifically intended as a programmer convenience, however, which is why we documented the fact that no standard words use it.
A.6.2.2008
PARSE
Typical use: char PARSE ccc<char>

The traditional Forth word for parsing is WORD. PARSE solves the following problems with WORD:

  1. WORD always skips leading delimiters. This behavior is appropriate for use by the text interpreter, which looks for sequences of non-blank characters, but is inappropriate for use by words like ( , .(, and .". Consider the following (flawed) definition of .(:

       : .( [CHAR] ) WORD COUNT TYPE ; IMMEDIATE

    This works fine when used in a line like:

       .( HELLO)    5 .

    but consider what happens if the user enters an empty string:

       .( )    5 .

    The definition of .( shown above would treat the ) as a leading delimiter, skip it, and continue consuming characters until it located another ) that followed a non-) character, or until the parse area was empty. In the example shown, the 5 . would be treated as part of the string to be printed.

    With PARSE, we could write a correct definition of .(:

       : .( [CHAR] ) PARSE TYPE ; IMMEDIATE

    This definition avoids the "empty string" anomaly.

  2. WORD returns its result as a counted string. This has four bad effects:

    1. The characters accepted by WORD must be copied from the input buffer into a transient buffer, in order to make room for the count character that must be at the beginning of the counted string. The copy step is inefficient, compared to PARSE, which leaves the string in the input buffer and doesn't need to copy it anywhere.

    2. WORD must be careful not to store too many characters into the transient buffer, thus overwriting something beyond the end of the buffer. This adds to the overhead of the copy step. (WORD may have to scan a lot of characters before finding the trailing delimiter.)

    3. The count character limits the length of the string returned by WORD to 255 characters (longer strings can easily be stored in blocks!). This limitation does not exist for PARSE.

    4. The transient buffer is typically overwritten by the next use of WORD.

    The need for WORD has largely been eliminated by PARSE and PARSE-NAME. WORD is retained for backward compatibility.

A.6.2.2030
PICK
0 PICK is equivalent to DUP and 1 PICK is equivalent to OVER.
A.6.2.2125
REFILL
REFILL is designed to behave reasonably for all possible input sources. If the input source is coming from the user, REFILL could still return a false value if, for instance, a communication channel closes so that the system knows that no more input will be available.
A.6.2.2150
ROLL
2 ROLL is equivalent to ROT, 1 ROLL is equivalent to SWAP and 0 ROLL is a null operation.
A.6.2.2182
SAVE-INPUT
SAVE-INPUT and RESTORE-INPUT allow the same degree of input source repositioning within a text file as is available with BLOCK input. SAVE-INPUT and RESTORE-INPUT "hide the details" of the operations necessary to accomplish this repositioning, and are used the same way with all input sources. This makes it easier for programs to reposition the input source, because they do not have to inspect several variables and take different action depending on the values of those variables.

SAVE-INPUT and RESTORE-INPUT are intended for repositioning within a single input source; for example, the following scenario is NOT allowed for a Standard Program:

: XX
   SAVE-INPUT CREATE
   S" RESTORE-INPUT" EVALUATE
   ABORT" couldn't restore input"
;

This is incorrect because, at the time RESTORE-INPUT is executed, the input source is the string via EVALUATE, which is not the same input source that was in effect when SAVE-INPUT was executed.

The following code is allowed:

: XX
   SAVE-INPUT CREATE
   S" .( Hello)" EVALUATE
   RESTORE-INPUT ABORT" couldn't restore input"
;

After EVALUATE returns, the input source specification is restored to its previous state, thus SAVE- INPUT and RESTORE-INPUT are called with the same input source in effect.

In the above examples, the EVALUATE phrase could have been replaced by a phrase involving INCLUDE-FILE and the same rules would apply.

The standard does not specify what happens if a program violates the above rules. A Standard System might check for the violation and return an exception indication from RESTORE-INPUT, or it might fail in an unpredictable way.

The return value from RESTORE-INPUT is primarily intended to report the case where the program attempts to restore the position of an input source whose position cannot be restored. The keyboard might be such an input source.

Nesting of SAVE-INPUT and RESTORE-INPUT is allowed. For example, the following situation works as expected:

: XX
   SAVE-INPUT
   S" f1" INCLUDED
   \ The file "f1" includes:
   \ ... SAVE-INPUT ... RESTORE-INPUT ...
   \ End of file "f1"
   RESTORE-INPUT ABORT" couldn't restore input"
;

In principle, RESTORE-INPUT could be implemented to "always fail", e.g.:

: RESTORE-INPUT ( x1 ... xn n -- flag )
   0 ?DO DROP LOOP TRUE
;

Such an implementation would not be useful in most cases. It would be preferable for a system to leave SAVE-INPUT and RESTORE-INPUT undefined, rather than to create a useless implementation. In the absence of the words, the application programmer could choose whether or not to create "dummy" implementations or to work-around the problem in some other way.

Examples of how an implementation might use the return values from SAVE-INPUT to accomplish the save/restore function:


Input Source possible stack values

block >IN @ BLK @ 2
EVALUATE >IN @ 1
keyboard >IN @ 1
text file >IN @ lo-pos hi-pos 3

These are examples only; a Standard Program may not assume any particular meaning for the individual stack items returned by SAVE-INPUT.

A.6.2.2295
TO
Typical use: x TO name

Some implementations of TO do not parse; instead they set a mode flag that is tested by the subsequent execution of name. Standard programs must use TO as if it parses. Therefore TO and name must be contiguous and on the same line in the source text.

A.6.2.2298
TRUE
TRUE is equivalent to the phrase 0 0=.
A.6.2.2405
VALUE
Typical use:
0 VALUE data

: EXCHANGE ( n1 -- n2 ) data SWAP TO data ;

EXCHANGE leaves n1 in data and returns the prior value n2.
A.6.2.2440
WITHIN
We describe WITHIN without mentioning circular number spaces (an undefined term) or providing the code. Here is a number line with the overflow point (o) at the far right and the underflow point (u) at the far left:
u---------------o
There are two cases to consider: either the n2 | u2... n3 | u3 range straddles the overflow/underflow points or it does not. Lets examine the non-straddle case first:
u-----[.....)-----o
The [ denotes n2 | u2, the ) denotes n3 | u3, and the dots and [ are numbers WITHIN the range. n3 | u3 is greater than n2 | u2, so the following tests will determine if n1 | u1 is WITHIN n2 | u2 and n3 | u3:
n2 | u2 <= n1 | u1 and n1 | u1 < n3 | u3.
In the case where the comparison range straddles the overflow/underflow points:
u.....)-----[.....o
n3 | u3 is less than n2 | u2 and the following tests will determine if n1 | u1 is WITHIN n2 | u2 and n3 | u3:
n2 | u2 <= n1 | u1 or n1 | u1 < n3 | u3.
WITHIN must work for both signed and unsigned arguments. One obvious implementation does not work:
: WITHIN ( test low high -- flag )
   >R OVER < 0= ( test flag1 ) SWAP R> < ( flag1 flag2 ) AND
;
Assume two's-complement arithmetic on a 16-bit machine, and consider the following test:

   33000 32000 34000 WITHIN

The above implementation returns false for that test, even though the unsigned number 33000 is clearly within the range {{32000 ... 34000}}.

The problem is that, in the incorrect implementation, the signed comparison < gives the wrong answer when 32000 is compared to 33000, because when those numbers are treated as signed numbers, 33000 is treated as negative 32536, while 32000 remains positive.

Replacing < with U< in the above implementation makes it work with unsigned numbers, but causes problems with certain signed number ranges; in particular, the test:

1 -5 5 WITHIN
would give an incorrect answer.

For two's-complement machines that ignore arithmetic overflow (most machines), the following implementation works in all cases:

: WITHIN ( test low high -- flag ) OVER - >R - R> U< ;
A.6.2.2530
[COMPILE]
Typical use: : name2 ... [COMPILE] name1 ... ; IMMEDIATE
A.6.2.2535
\
Typical use:
5 CONSTANT THAT \ This is a comment about THAT

A.9 The optional Block word set

Early Forth systems ran without a host OS; these are known as native systems. Such systems provide mass storage in blocks of 1024 bytes. The Block Word set includes the most common words for accessing program source and data on disk.

A.9.2 Additional terms

block
Forth systems may use blocks to contain program source. Conventionally such blocks are formatted for editing as 16 lines of 64 characters. Source blocks are often referred to as "screens".

A.9.3 Additional usage requirements

A.9.3.2 Block buffer regions

While the standard does not address multitasking per se, the items listed in 7.3.2 Block buffer regions that may render block-buffer addresses invalid are due to multitasking considerations. The standard restricts programs such that items that could fail on multitasking systems are not standard usage. It also permits multitasking systems to be declared standard systems.

A.9.6 Glossary

A.7.6.2.2190
SCR
SCR is short for screen.

A.11 The optional Double-Number word set

Forth systems on 8-bit and 16-bit processors often find it necessary to deal with double-length numbers. But many Forths on small embedded systems do not, and many users of Forth on systems with a cell size of 32-bits or more find that the necessity for double-length numbers is much diminished. Therefore, we have factored the words that manipulate double-length entities into this optional word set.

Please note that the naming convention used in this word set conveys some important information:

  1. Words whose names are of the form 2xxx deal with cell pairs, where the relationship between the cells is unspecified. They may be two-vectors, double-length numbers, or any pair of cells that it is convenient to manipulate together.

  2. Words with names of the form Dxxx deal specifically with double-length integers.

  3. Words with names of the form Mxxx deal with some combination of single and double integers. The order in which these appear on the stack is determined by long-standing common practice.

Refer to A.3.1 for a discussion of data types in Forth.

A.11.6 Glossary

A.8.6.1.0360
2CONSTANT
Typical use: x1 x2 2CONSTANT name
A.8.6.1.0390
2LITERAL
Typical use: : X ... [ x1 x2 ] 2LITERAL ... ;
A.8.6.1.0440
2VARIABLE
Typical use: 2VARIABLE name
A.8.6.1.1070
D.R
In D.R, the "R" is short for RIGHT.
A.8.6.1.1140
D>S
There exist number representations, e.g., the sign-magnitude representation, where reduction from double- to single-precision cannot simply be done with DROP. This word, equivalent to DROP on two's complement systems, desensitizes application code to number representation and facilitates portability.
A.8.6.1.1820
M*/
M*/ was once described by Chuck Moore as the most useful arithmetic operator in Forth. It is the main workhorse in most computations involving double-cell numbers. Note that some systems allow signed divisors. This can cost a lot in performance on some CPUs. The requirement for a positive divisor has not proven to be a problem.
A.8.6.1.1830
M+
M+ is the classical method for integrating.
A.8.6.2.0435
2VALUE
Typical use:
: fn1 S" filename" ;
fn1 2VALUE myfile
myfile INCLUDED
: fn2 S" filename2" ;
fn2 TO myfile
myfile INCLUDED

A.13 The optional Exception word set

CATCH and THROW provide a reliable mechanism for handling exceptions, without having to propagate exception flags through multiple levels of word nesting. It is similar in spirit to the "non-local return" mechanisms of many other languages, such as C's setjmp() and longjmp(), and LISP's CATCH and THROW. In the Forth context, THROW may be described as a "multi-level EXIT", with CATCH marking a location to which a THROW may return.

Several similar Forth "multi-level EXIT" exception-handling schemes have been described and used in past years. It is not possible to implement such a scheme using only standard words (other than CATCH and THROW), because there is no portable way to "unwind" the return stack to a predetermined place.

THROW also provides a convenient implementation technique for the standard words ABORT and ABORT", allowing an application to define, through the use of CATCH, the behavior in the event of a system ABORT.

CATCH and THROW provide a convenient way for an implementation to "clean up" the state of open files if an exception occurs during the text interpretation of a file with INCLUDE-FILE. The implementation of INCLUDE-FILE may guard (with CATCH) the word that performs the text interpretation, and if CATCH returns an exception code, the file may be closed and the exception reTHROWn so that the files being included at an outer nesting level may be closed also. Note that the standard allows, but does not require, INCLUDE-FILE to close its open files if an exception occurs. However, it does require INCLUDE-FILE to unnest the input source specification if an exception is THROWn.

A.13.3 Additional usage requirements

One important use of an exception handler is to maintain program control under many conditions which ABORT. This is practicable only if a range of codes is reserved. Note that an application may overload many standard words in such a way as to THROW ambiguous conditions not normally THROWn by a particular system.

A.13.3.6 Exception handling

The method of accomplishing this coupling is implementation dependent. For example, LOAD could "know" about CATCH and THROW (by using CATCH itself, for example), or CATCH and THROW could "know" about LOAD (by maintaining input source nesting information in a data structure known to THROW, for example). Under these circumstances it is not possible for a Standard Program to define words such as LOAD in a completely portable way.

A.13.6 Glossary

A.9.6.1.2275
THROW
If THROW is executed with a non zero argument, the effect is as if the corresponding CATCH had returned it. In that case, the stack depth is the same as it was just before CATCH began execution. The values of the i * x stack arguments could have been modified arbitrarily during the execution of xt. In general, nothing useful may be done with those stack items, but since their number is known (because the stack depth is deterministic), the application may DROP them to return to a predictable stack state.

Typical use:

: could-fail ( -- char )
   KEY DUP [CHAR] Q = IF 1 THROW THEN ;

: do-it ( a b -- c) 2DROP could-fail ;

: try-it ( --)
   1 2 ['] do-it CATCH IF
   ( x1 x2 ) 2DROP ." There was an exception" CR
   ELSE ." The character was " EMIT CR
   THEN
;

; retry-it ( -- )
   BEGIN 1 2 ['] do-it CATCH WHILE
   ( x1 x2) 2DROP ." Exception, keep trying" CR
   REPEAT ( char )
   ." The character was " EMIT CR
;

A.15 The optional Facility word set

A.15.6 Glossary

A.10.6.1.1755
KEY?
The committee has gone around several times on the stack effects. Whatever is decided will violate somebody's practice and penalize some machine. This way doesn't interfere with type-ahead on some systems, while requiring the implementation of a single-character buffer on machines where polling the keyboard inevitably results in the destruction of the character.

Use of KEY or KEY? indicates that the application does not wish to process non-character events, so they are discarded, in anticipation of eventually receiving a valid character. Applications wishing to handle non-character events must use EKEY and EKEY?. It is possible to mix uses of KEY?/KEY and EKEY?/EKEY within a single application, but the application must use KEY? and KEY only when it wishes to discard non-character events until a valid character is received.

A.10.6.2.0135
+FIELD
+FIELD is not required to align items. This is deliberate and allows the construction of unaligned data structures for communication with external elements such as a hardware register map or protocol packet. Field alignment has been left to the appropriate xFIELD: definition.
A.10.6.2.0763
BEGIN-STRUCTURE
There are two schools of thought regarding named data structures: name first and name last. The name last school can define a named data structure as follows:

0                         \ initial total byte count
   1 CELLS +FIELD p.x    \ A single cell filed named p.x
   1 CELLS +FIELD p.y    \ A single cell field named p.y
CONSTANT point          \ save structure size

While the name first school would define the same data structure as:

BEGIN-STRUCTURE point \ create the named structure
   1 CELLS +FIELD p.x    \ A single cell filed named p.x
   1 CELLS +FIELD p.y    \ A single cell field named p.y
END-STRUCTURE

Although many systems provide a name first structure there is no common practice to the words used. The words BEGIN-STRUCTURE and END-STRUCTURE have been defied as a means of providing a portable notation that does not conflict with existing systems.

The field defining words (xFIELD: and +FIELD) are defined so they can be used by both schools. Compatibility between the two schools comes from defining a new stack item struct-sys, which is implementation dependent and can be 0 or more cells. The name first school would provide an address (addr) as the struct-sys parameter, while the name last school would defined struct-sys as being empty.

Executing the name of the data structure, returns the size of the data structure. This allows the data stricture to be used within another data structure:

BEGIN-STRUCTURE point \ -- a-addr 0 ; -- lenp
   FIELD: p.x             \ -- a-addr cell
   FIELD: p.y             \ -- a-addr cell*2
END-STRUCTURE
BEGIN-STRUCTURE rect    \ -- a-addr 0 ; -- lenr
   point +FIELD r.tlhc    \ -- a-addr cell*2
   point +FIELD r.brhc    \ -- a-addr cell*4
END-STRUCTURE

Alignment:
In practice, structures are used for two different purposes with incompatible requirements:
  1. For collecting related internal-use data into a convenient "package" that can be referred to by a single "handle". For this use, alignment is important, so that efficient native fetch and store instructions can be used.

  2. For mapping external data structures like hardware register maps and protocol packets. For this use, automatic alignment is inappropriate, because the alignment of the external data structure often doesn't match the rules for a given processor.

Many languages cater for the first use, but ignore the second. This leads to various customized solutions, usage requirements, portability problems, bugs, etc. +FIELD is defined to be non-aligning, while the named field defining words (xFIELD:) are aligning. This is intentional and allows for both uses.

The standard currently defines an aligned field defining word for each of the standard data types:

CFIELD: a character
FIELD: a native integer (single cell)
FFIELD: a native float
SFFIELD: a 32 bit float
DFFIELD: a 64 bit float

Although this is a sufficient set, most systems provide facilities to define field defining words for standard data types.

Future:
The following cannot be defined until the required addressing has been defined. The names should be considered reserved until then.

BFIELD: 1 byte (8 bit) field
WFIELD: 16 bit field
LFIELD: 32 bit field
XFIELD: 64 bit field
A.10.6.2.1305
EKEY
For some input devices, such as keyboards, more information is available than can be returned by a single execution of KEY. EKEY provides a standard word to access a system-dependent set of events.

EKEY and EKEY? are implementation specific; no assumption can be made regarding the interaction between the pairs EKEY/EKEY? and KEY/KEY?. This standard does not define a timing relationship between KEY? and EKEY?. Undefined results may be avoided by using only one pairing of KEY/ KEY? or EKEY/EKEY? in a program for each input stream.

EKEY assumes no particular numerical correspondence between particular event code values and the values representing standard characters. On some systems, this may allow two separate keys that correspond to the same standard character to be distinguished from one another. A standard program may only interpret the results of EKEY via the translation words provided for that purpose (EKEY>CHAR and EKEY>FKEY).

See: A.6.1.1750 KEY, 10.6.2.1306 EKEY>CHAR and 10.6.2.1306.40 EKEY>FKEY.

A.10.6.2.1306
EKEY>CHAR
EKEY>CHAR translates a keyboard event into the corresponding member of the character set, if such a correspondence exists for that event.

It is possible that several different keyboard events may correspond to the same character, and other keyboard events may correspond to no character.

A.10.6.2.1306.40
EKEY>FKEY
EKEY produces an abstract cell type for a keyboard event (e.g., a keyboard scan code). EKEY>FKEY checks if such an event corresponds to a special (non-graphic) key press, and if so, returns a code for the special key press. The encoding of special keys (returned by EKEY>FKEY) may be different from the encoding of these keys as keyboard events (input to EKEY>FKEY).

Typical Use:

... EKEY EKEY>FKEY IF
   CASE
     K-UP OF ... ENDOF
     K-F1 OF ... ENDOF
     K-LEFT K-SHIFT-MASK OR K-CTRL-MASK OR OF ... ENDOF
     ...
   ENDCASE
ELSE
   ...
THEN

The codes for the special keys are system-dependent, but this standard provides words for getting the key codes for a number of keys:


Word Key      Word Key

K-F1 F1 K-LEFT cursor left
K-F2 F2 K-RIGHT cursor right
K-F3 F3 K-UP cursor up
K-F4 F4 K-DOWN cursor down
K-F5 F5 K-HOME home or Pos1
K-F6 F6 K-END End
K-F7 F7 K-PRIOR PgUp or Prior
K-F8 F8 K-NEXT PgDn or Next
K-F9 F9 K-INSERT Insert
K-F10 F10 K-DELETE Delete
K-F11 F11
K-F12 F12

In addition, you can get codes for shifted variants of these keys by ORing with K-SHIFT-MASK, K-CTRL-MASK and/or K-ALT-MASK, e.g. K-CTRL-MASK K-ALT-MASK OR K-DELETE OR. The masks for the shift keys are:


Word Key

K-SHIFT-MASK Shift
K-CTRL-MASK Ctrl
K-ALT-MASK Alt

Note that not all of these keys are available on all systems, and not all combinations of keys and shift keys are available. Therefore programs should be written such that they continue to work (although less conveniently or with less functionality) if these key combinations cannot be produced.

A.10.6.2.1325
EMIT?
An indefinite delay is a device related condition, such as printer off-line, that requires operator intervention before the device will accept new data.
A.10.6.2.1518
FIELD:
Create an aligned single-cell field in a data structure.

The various xFIELD: words provide for different alignment and size allocation.

The xFIELD: words could be defined as:

    : FIELD:    ( n1 "name" -- n2 ; addr1 -- addr2 )          ALIGNED 1 CELLS +FIELD ;
    : CFIELD:   ( n1 "name" -- n2 ; addr1 -- addr2 )          1 CHARS   +FIELD ;
   : FFIELD:   ( n1 "name" -- n2 ; addr1 -- addr2 )          FALIGNED 1 FLOATS +FIELD ;
    : SFFIELD:  ( n1 "name" -- n2 ; addr1 -- addr2 )          SFALIGNED 1 SFLOATS +FIELD ;
    : DFFIELD:  ( n1 "name" -- n2 ; addr1 -- addr2 )          DFALIGNED 1 DFLOATS +FIELD ;
A.10.6.2.1905
MS
Although their frequencies vary, every system has a clock. Since many programs need to time intervals, this word is offered. Use of milliseconds as an internal unit of time is a practical "least common denominator" external unit. It is assumed implementors will use "clock ticks" (whatever size they are) as an internal unit and convert as appropriate.
A.10.6.2.2292
TIME&DATE
Most systems have a real-time clock/calendar. This word gives portable access to it.

A.17 The optional File-Access word set

A.17.3 Additional usage requirements

A.17.3.2 Blocks in files

Many systems reuse file identifiers; when a file is closed, a subsequently opened file may be given the same identifier. If the original file has blocks still in block buffers, these will be incorrectly associated with the newly opened file with disastrous results. The block buffer system must be flushed to avoid this.

A.17.3.4 Other transient regions

Additional transient buffers are provided for use by S" and S\". The buffers should be able to store two consecutive strings, thus allowing the command line:

S" name1" S" name2" RENAME-FILE

The buffers may be implemented in a circular arrangement, where a string is placed into the next available buffer. When there are no buffers available, the oldest buffer is overwritten.

S" and S\" may share the same buffers.

The list of words using memory in transient regions is extended to include 11.6.1.2165 S" and 11.6.2.2266 S\". See 3.3.3.6 Other transient regions.

A.17.6 Glossary

A.11.6.1.0765
BIN
Some operating systems require that files be opened in a different mode to access their contents as an unstructured stream of binary data rather than as a sequence of lines.

The arguments to READ-FILE and WRITE-FILE are arrays of character storage elements, each element consisting of at least 8 bits. The committee intends that, in BIN mode, the contents of these storage elements can be written to a file and later read back without alteration.

A.11.6.1.1010
CREATE-FILE
Typical use:

   : X ... S" TEST.FTH" R/W CREATE-FILE ABORT" CREATE-FILE FAILED" ;

A.11.6.1.1717
INCLUDE-FILE
Here are two implementation alternatives for saving the input source specification in the presence of text file input:

  1. Save the file position (as returned by FILE-POSITION) of the beginning of the line being interpreted. To restore the input source specification, seek to that position and re-read the line into the input buffer.

  2. Allocate a separate line buffer for each active text input file, using that buffer as the input buffer. This method avoids the "seek and reread" step, and allows the use of "pseudo-files" such as pipes and other sequential-access-only communication channels.
A.11.6.1.1718
INCLUDED
Typical use: ... S" filename" INCLUDED ...
A.11.6.1.1970
OPEN-FILE
Typical use:

   : X ... S" TEST.FTH" R/W OPEN-FILE ABORT" OPEN-FILE FAILED" ... ;

A.11.6.1.2080
READ-FILE
A typical sequential file-processing algorithm might look like:
BEGIN                        ( )
    ... READ-FILE THROW      ( length )
?DUP WHILE                   ( length )
    ...                      ( )
REPEAT                       ( )
In this example, THROW is used to handle exception conditions, which are reported as non-zero values of the ior return value from READ-FILE. End-of-file is reported as a zero value of the "length" return value.
A.11.6.1.2090
READ-LINE
Implementations are allowed to store the line terminator in the memory buffer in order to allow the use of line reading functions provided by host operating systems, some of which store the terminator. Without this provision, a transient buffer might be needed. The two-character limitation is sufficient for the vast majority of existing operating systems. Implementations on host operating systems whose line terminator sequence is longer than two characters may have to take special action to prevent the storage of more than two terminator characters.

Standard Programs may not depend on the presence of any such terminator sequence in the buffer.

A typical line-oriented sequential file-processing algorithm might look like:

BEGIN                        ( )
    ... READ-LINE THROW      ( length not-eof-flag )
WHILE                        ( length )
    ...                      ( )
REPEAT DROP                  ( )
READ-LINE needs a separate end-of-file flag because empty (zero-length) lines are a routine occurrence, so a zero-length line cannot be used to signify end-of-file.
A.11.6.1.2165
S"
Typical use: ... S" ccc" ...

The interpretation semantics for S" are intended to provide a simple mechanism for entering a string in the interpretation state. Since an implementation may choose to provide only one buffer for interpreted strings, an interpreted string is subject to being overwritten by the next execution of S" in interpretation state. It is intended that no standard words other than S" should in themselves cause the interpreted string to be overwritten. However, since words such as EVALUATE, LOAD, INCLUDE-FILE and INCLUDED can result in the interpretation of arbitrary text, possibly including instances of S", the interpreted string may be invalidated by some uses of these words.

When the possibility of overwriting a string can arise, it is prudent to copy the string to a "safe" buffer allocated by the application.

A.11.6.2.1714
INCLUDE
Typical use:
INCLUDE filename
A.11.6.2.2144.10
REQUIRE
Typical use:
REQUIRE filename
A.11.6.2.2144.50
REQUIRED
Typical use:
S" filename" REQUIRED

A.19 The optional Floating-Point word set

The current base for floating-point input must be DECIMAL. Floating-point input is not allowed in an arbitrary base. All floating-point numbers to be interpreted by a standard system must contain the exponent indicator "E" (see 12.3.7 Text interpreter input number conversion). Consensus in the committee deemed this form of floating-point input to be in more common use than the alternative that would have a floating-point input mode that would allow numbers with embedded decimal points to be treated as floating-point numbers.

Although the format and precision of the significand and the format and range of the exponent of a floating-point number are implementation defined in Forth-2012, the Floating-Point Extensions word set contains the words DF@, SF@, DF!, and SF! for fetching and storing double- and single-precision IEEE floating-point-format numbers to memory. The IEEE floating-point format is commonly used by numeric math co-processors and for exchange of floating-point data between programs and systems.

A.19.3 Additional usage requirements

A.19.3.5 Address alignment

In defining custom floating-point data structures, be aware that CREATE doesn't necessarily leave the data space pointer aligned for various floating-point data types. Programs may comply with the requirement for the various kinds of floating-point alignment by specifying the appropriate alignment both at compile-time and execution time. For example:

: FCONSTANT ( F: r -- )
   CREATE FALIGN HERE 1 FLOATS ALLOT F!
   DOES> ( F: -- r ) FALIGNED F@ ;

A.19.3.7 Text interpreter input number conversion

The committee has more than once received the suggestion that the text interpreter in standard Forth systems should treat numbers that have an embedded decimal point, but no exponent, as floating-point numbers rather than double cell numbers. This suggestion, although it has merit, has always been voted down because it would break too much existing code; many existing implementations put the full digit string on the stack as a double number and use other means to inform the application of the location of the decimal point.

A.19.6 Glossary

A.12.6.1.0558
>FLOAT
>FLOAT enables programs to read floating-point data in legible ASCII format. It accepts a much broader syntax than does the text interpreter since the latter defines rules for composing source programs whereas >FLOAT defines rules for accepting data. >FLOAT is defined as broadly as is feasible to permit input of data from Forth-2012 systems as well as other widely used standard programming environments.

This is a synthesis of common FORTRAN practice. Embedded spaces are explicitly forbidden in much scientific usage, as are other field separators such as comma or slash.

While >FLOAT is not required to treat a string of blanks as zero, this behavior is strongly encouraged, since a future version of this standard may include such a requirement.

A.12.6.1.1492
FCONSTANT
Typical use: r FCONSTANT name
A.12.6.1.1552
FLITERAL
Typical use: : X ... [ ... ( r ) ] FLITERAL ... ;
A.12.6.1.1630
FVARIABLE
Typical use: FVARIABLE name
A.12.6.1.2143
REPRESENT
This word provides a primitive for floating-point display. Some floating-point formats, including those specified by IEEE-754, allow representations of numbers outside of an implementation-defined range. These include plus and minus infinities, denormalized numbers, and others. In these cases we expect that REPRESENT will usually be implemented to return appropriate character strings, such as "+infinity" or "nan", possibly truncated.
A.12.6.2.1427
F.
For example, 1E3 F. displays 1000.
A.12.6.2.1489
FATAN2
FSINCOS and FATAN2 are a complementary pair of operators which convert angles to 2-vectors and vice-versa. They are essential to most geometric and physical applications since they correctly and unambiguously handle this conversion in all cases except null vectors, even when the tangent of the angle would be infinite.

FSINCOS returns a Cartesian unit vector in the direction of the given angle, measured counter-clockwise from the positive X-axis. The order of results on the stack, namely y underneath x, permits the 2-vector data type to be additionally viewed and used as a ratio approximating the tangent of the angle. Thus the phrase FSINCOS F/ is functionally equivalent to FTAN, but is useful over only a limited and discontinuous range of angles, whereas FSINCOS and FATAN2 are useful for all angles.

The argument order for FATAN2 is the same, converting a vector in the conventional representation to a scalar angle. Thus, for all angles, FSINCOS FATAN2 is an identity within the accuracy of the arithmetic and the argument range of FSINCOS. Note that while FSINCOS always returns a valid unit vector, FATAN2 will accept any non-null vector. An ambiguous condition exists if the vector argument to FATAN2 has zero magnitude.

A.12.6.2.1516
FEXPM1
This function allows accurate computation when its arguments are close to zero, and provides a useful base for the standard exponential functions. Hyperbolic functions such as sinh(x) can be efficiently and accurately implemented by using FEXPM1; accuracy is lost in this function for small values of x if the word FEXP is used.

An important application of this word is in finance; say a loan is repaid at 15% per year; what is the daily rate? On a computer with single-precision (six decimal digit) accuracy:

  1. Using FLN and FEXP: FLN of 1.15 = 0.139762,
    divide by 365 = 3.82910E-4,
    form the exponent using FEXP = 1.00038, and
    subtract one (1) and convert to percentage = 0.038%.
Thus we only have two-digit accuracy.
  1. Using FLNP1 and FEXPM1: FLNP1 of 0.15 = 0.139762, (this is the same value as in the first example, although with the argument closer to zero it may not be so)
    divide by 365 = 3.82910E-4,
    form the exponent and subtract one (1) using FEXPM1 = 3.82983E-4, and
    convert to percentage = 0.0382983%.
This calculation method allows the hyperbolic functions to be computed with six-digit accuracy. For example, sinh can be defined as:

: FSINH ( r1 -- r2 )
   FEXPM1 FDUP FDUP 1.0E0 F+ F/ F+ 2.0E0 F/ ;
A.12.6.2.1554
FLNP1
This function allows accurate compilation when its arguments are close to zero, and provides a useful base for the standard logarithmic functions. For example, FLN can be implemented as:

: FLN 1.0E0 F- FLNP1 ;
See:
A.12.6.2.1640
F~
This provides the three types of "floating point equality" in common use — "close" in absolute terms, exact equality as represented, and "relatively close".

A.21 The optional Locals word set

A.21.3 Additional usage requirements

Rule 13.3.3.2d could be relaxed without affecting the integrity of the rest of this structure. 13.3.3.2c could not be.

13.3.3.2b forbids the use of the data stack for local storage because no usage rules have been articulated for programmer users in such a case. Of course, if the data stack is somehow employed in such a way that there are no usage rules, then the locals are invisible to the programmer, are logically not on the stack, and the implementation conforms.

Access to previously declared local variables is prohibited by Section 13.3.3.2d until any data placed onto the return stack by the application has been removed, due to the possible use of the return stack for storage of locals.

Authorization for a Standard Program to manipulate the return stack (e.g., via >R R>) while local variables are active overly constrains implementation possibilities. The consensus of users of locals was that Local facilities represent an effective functional replacement for return stack manipulation, and restriction of standard usage to only one method was reasonable.

Access to Locals within DO...LOOPs is expressly permitted as an additional requirement of conforming systems by Section 13.3.3.2g. Although words, such as (LOCAL), written by a System Implementor, may require inside knowledge of the internal structure of the return stack, such knowledge is not required of a user of compliant Forth systems.

A.21.6 Glossary

A.13.6.2.2550
{:
The Forth 94 Technical Committee was unable to identify any common practice for locals. It provided a way to define locals and a method of parsing them in the hope that a common practice would emerge.

Since then, common practice has emerged. Most implementations that provide (LOCAL) and LOCALS| also provide some form of the { ... } notation; however, the phrase { ... } conflicts with other systems. The {: ... :} notation is a compromise to avoid name conflicts.

The notation provides for different kinds of local: those that are initialized from the data stack at run-time, uninitialized locals, and outputs. Initialized locals are separated from uninitialized locals by `|'. The definition of locals is terminated by `--' or `:}'.

All text between `--' and `:}' is ignored. This eases documentation by allowing a complete stack comment in the locals definition.

The `|' (ASCII $7C) character is widely used as the separator between local arguments and local values. Some implementations have used `\' (ASCII $5C) or `¦' ($A6). Systems are free to continue to provide these alternative separators. However, only the recognition of the `|' separator is mandatory. Therefore portable programs must use the `|' separator.

A number of systems extend the locals notation in various ways. Some of these extensions may emerge as common practice. This standard has reserved the notation used by these extensions to avoid difficulties when porting code to these systems. In particular local names ending in `:' (colon), `[' (open bracket), or `^' (caret) are reserved.

A.23 The optional Memory-Allocation word set

The Memory-Allocation word set provides a means for acquiring memory other than the contiguous data space that is allocated by ALLOT. In many operating system environments it is inappropriate for a process to pre-allocate large amounts of contiguous memory (as would be necessary for the use of ALLOT). The Memory-Allocation word set can acquire memory from the system at any time, without knowing in advance the address of the memory that will be acquired.

A.24 The optional Programming-Tools word set

These words have been in widespread common use since the earliest Forth systems.

Although there are environmental dependencies intrinsic to programs using an assembler, virtually all Forth systems provide such a capability. Insofar as many Forth programs are intended for real-time applications and are intrinsically non-portable for this reason, the committee believes that providing a standard window into assemblers is a useful contribution to Forth programmers.

Similarly, the programming aids DUMP, etc., are valuable tools even though their specific formats will differ between CPUs and Forth implementations. These words are primarily intended for use by the programmer, and are rarely invoked in programs.

One of the original aims of Forth was to erase the boundary between "user" and "programmer" — to give all possible power to anyone who had occasion to use a computer. Nothing in the above labeling or remarks should be construed to mean that this goal has been abandoned.

A.24.3.1 Name tokens

Name tokens are an abstract data type identifying named words. You can use words such as NAME>STRING to get information out of name tokens.

A.24.6 Glossary

A.15.6.1.0220
.S
.S is a debugging convenience found on almost all Forth systems. It is universally mentioned in Forth texts.
A.15.6.1.2194
SEE
SEE acts as an on-line form of documentation of words, allowing modification of words by decompiling and regenerating with appropriate changes.
A.15.6.1.2465
WORDS
WORDS is a debugging convenience found on almost all Forth systems. It is universally referred to in Forth texts.
A.15.6.2.0470
;CODE
Typical use: : namex ... <create> ... ;CODE ...

where namex is a defining word, and <create> is CREATE or any user defined word that calls CREATE.

A.15.6.2.0930
CODE
Some Forth systems implement the assembly function by adding an ASSEMBLER word list to the search order, using the text interpreter to parse a postfix assembly language with lexical characteristics similar to Forth source code. Typically, in such systems, assembly ends when a word END-CODE is interpreted.
A.15.6.2.1015
CS-PICK
The intent is to copy a dest on the control-flow stack so that it can be resolved more than once. For example:
\ Conditionally transfer control to beginning of
\ loop. This is similar in spirit to C's "continue"
\ statement.

: ?REPEAT ( dest -- dest ) \ Compilation
       ( flag -- )    \ Execution
   0 CS-PICK POSTPONE UNTIL
; IMMEDIATE

: XX ( -- ) \ Example use of ?REPEAT
   BEGIN
     ...
   flag ?REPEAT ( Go back to BEGIN if flag is false )
     ...
   flag ?REPEAT ( Go back to BEGIN if flag is false )
     ...
   flag UNTIL ( Go back to BEGIN if flag is false )
;

A.15.6.2.1020
CS-ROLL
The intent is to modify the order in which the origs and dests on the control-flow stack are to be resolved by subsequent control-flow words. For example, WHILE could be implemented in terms of IF and CS-ROLL, as follows:

: WHILE ( dest -- orig dest )
   POSTPONE IF 1 CS-ROLL
; IMMEDIATE
A.15.6.2.1580
FORGET
Typical use: ... FORGET name ...

FORGET name tries to infer the previous dictionary state from name; this is not always possible. As a consequence, FORGET name removes name and all following words in the name space.

See A.6.2.1850 MARKER.

A.15.6.2.1908
N>R
An implementation may store the stack items in any manner. It may store them on the return stack, in any order. A stack-constrained system may prefer to use a buffer to store the items and place a reference to the buffer on the return stack.

See:
A.15.6.2.1909.10
NAME>COMPILE
In a traditional xt+immediate-flag system, the x xt returned by NAME>COMPILE is typically xt1 xt2, where xt1 is the xt of the word under consideration, and xt2 is the xt of EXECUTE (for immediate words) or COMPILE, (for words with default compilation semantics).

If you want to POSTPONE nt, you can do so with

NAME>COMPILE SWAP POSTPONE LITERAL COMPILE,
A.15.6.2.2297
TRAVERSE-WORDLIST
Typical use:

: WORDS-COUNT ( x nt – x' f ) DROP 1+ TRUE ;
0 ' WORDS-COUNT FORTH-WORDLIST TRAVERSE-WORDLIST .

prints a count of the number of words in the FORTH-WORDLIST.

: ALL-WORDS NAME>STRING CR TYPE TRUE ;
' ALL-WORDS GET-CURRENT TRAVERSE-WORDLIST

prints the names of words in the current compilation wordlist.

: CONTAINS-STRING
   NAME>STRING 2OVER SEARCH IF CR TYPE THEN FALSE ;
S" COM" ' CONTAINS-STRING GET-CURRENT TRAVERSE-WORDLIST

prints the name of a word containing the string "COM", if it exists, and then terminates.

A.15.6.2.2531
[ELSE]
Typical use: ... flag [IF] ... [ELSE] ... [THEN] ...
A.15.6.2.2532
[IF]
Typical use: ... flag [IF] ... [ELSE] ... [THEN] ...
A.15.6.2.2533
[THEN]
Typical use: ... flag [IF] ... [ELSE] ... [THEN] ...

Software that runs in several system environments often contains some source code that is environmentally dependent. Conditional compilation — the selective inclusion or exclusion of portions of the source code at compile time — is one technique that is often used to assist in the maintenance of such source code.

Conditional compilation is sometimes done with "smart comments" — definitions that either skip or do not skip the remainder of the line based on some test. For example:

\ If 16-Bit? contains TRUE, lines preceded by 16BIT\
\ will be skipped. Otherwise, they will not be skipped.

VARIABLE 16-BIT?

: 16BIT\ ( -- ) 16-BIT? @ IF POSTPONE \ THEN
; IMMEDIATE

This technique works on a line by line basis, and is good for short, isolated variant code sequences.

More complicated conditional compilation problems suggest a nestable method that can encompass more than one source line at a time. The words included in the optional Programming tools extensions word set are useful for this purpose.

A.26 The optional Search-Order word set

The search-order word set is intended to be a portable "construction set" from which search-order words may be built. ALSO/ONLY or the various "vocabulary" schemes supported by the major Forth vendors can be defined in terms of the primitive search-order word set.

The encoding for word list identifiers wid might be a small-integer index into an array of word-list definition records, the data-space address of such a record, a user-area offset, the execution token of a sealed vocabulary, the link-field address of the first definition in a word list, or anything else. It is entirely up to the system implementor.

A.26.2 Additional terms and notation

search order
Note that the use of the term "list" does not necessarily imply implementation as a linked list

A.26.3 Additional usage requirements

A.26.3.3 Finding definition names

In other words, the following is not guaranteed to work:

: FOO ... [ ... SET-CURRENT ] ... RECURSE ...
; IMMEDIATE
RECURSE, ; (semicolon), and IMMEDIATE may or may not need information stored in the compilation word list.

A.26.6 Glossary

A.16.6.1.2192
SEARCH-WORDLIST
When SEARCH-WORDLIST fails to find the word, it does not return the string, unlike FIND. This is in accordance with the general principle that Forth words consume their arguments.

A.28 The optional String word set

A.28.6 Glossary

A.17.6.1.0245
/STRING
/STRING is used to remove or add characters relative to the current position in the character string. Positive values of n will exclude characters from the string while negative values of n will include characters to the left of the string.

S" ABC" 2 /STRING 2DUP TYPE \ outputs "C"
-1 /STRING TYPE \ outputs "BC"

A.17.6.1.0910
CMOVE
If c-addr2 lies within the source region (i.e., when c-addr2 is not less than c-addr1 and c-addr2 is less than the quantity c-addr1 u CHARS +), memory propagation occurs.

Assume a character string at address 100: "ABCD". Then after

100 DUP CHAR+ 3 CMOVE
the string at address 100 is "AAAA".

See A.6.1.1900 MOVE.

A.17.6.1.0920
CMOVE>
If c-addr1 lies within the destination region (i.e., when c-addr1 is greater than or equal to c-addr2 and c-addr2 is less than the quantity c-addr1 u CHARS +), memory propagation occurs.

Assume a character string at address 100: "ABCD". Then after

100 DUP CHAR+ SWAP 3 CMOVE>
the string at address 100 is "DDDD".

See A.6.1.1900 MOVE.

A.17.6.1.2212
SLITERAL
The current functionality of 6.1.2165 S" may be provided by the following definition:
: S" ( "ccc<quote>" -- )
   [CHAR] " PARSE POSTPONE SLITERAL
; IMMEDIATE
A.17.6.2.2255
SUBSTITUTE
Many applications need to be able to perform text substitution, for example:

Your balance at <time> on <date> is <currencyvalue>.

Translation of a sentence or message from one language to another may result in changes to the displayed parameter order. The example, the Afrikaans translation of this sentence requires a different order:

Jou balans op <date> om <time> is <currencyvalue>.

The words SUBSTITUTE and REPLACES provide for this requirements by defining a text substitution facility. For example, we can provide an initial string in the form:

Your balance at %time% on %date% is %currencyvalue%.

The % is used as delimiters for the substitution name. The text "currencyvalue", "date" and "time" are text substitutions, where the replacement text is defined by REPLACES:

: date S" 10/Nov/2014" ;
: time S" 02:52" ;
date \= S" date" REPLACES
time S" time" REPLACES
The substitution name "date" is defined to be replaced with the string "10/Nov/2014" and "time" to be replaced with "02:52". Thus SUBSTITUTE would produce the string:

Your balance at 02:52 on 10/Nov/2014 is %currencyvalue%.

As the substitution name "currencyvalue" has not been defined, it is left unchanged in the resulting string.

The return value n is nonnegative on success and indicates the number of substitutions made. In the above example, this would be two. A negative value indicates that an error occurred. As substitution is not recursive, the return value could be used to provide a recursive substitution.

Implementation of SUBSTITUTE may be considered as being equivalent to a wordlist which is searched. If the substitution name is found, the word is executed, returning a substitution string. Such words can be deferred or multiple wordlists can be used. The implementation techniques required are similar to those used by ENVIRONMENT?. There is no provision for changing the delimiter character, although a system may provide system-specific extensions.

A.30 The optional Extended-Character word set

Forth defines graphic and control characters from the ASCII character set. ASCII was originally designed for the English language. However, most western languages fit somewhat into the Forth framework, since a single byte is sufficient to encode all characters in each language, although different languages may use different encodings; Latin-1 and Latin-15 are widely used. For other languages, different character sets have to be used, several of which are variable-width. Currently, the most popular representative of the variable-width character sets is UTF-8.

Many Forth systems today are case insensitive, to accept lower case standard words. It is sufficient to be case insensitive for the ASCII subset to make this work — this saves a large code mapping table for comparison of other symbols. Case is mostly an issue of European languages (Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic), but similar issues exist between traditional and simplified Chinese (finally being dealt with by Unihan), and between different Latin code pages in the Universal Character Set (UCS), e.g., full width vs. normal half width Latin letters.

Furthermore, UCS allows composition of glyphs and has direct encoding for composed glyphs, which look the same, but have different encodings. This is not a problem for a Forth system to solve.

Some encodings (not UTF-8) might give surprises when you use a case insensitive ASCII-compare that's 8-bit safe, but not aware of the current encoding.

The xchar word set does not address problems that come from using multiple different encodings and switching or converting between them. It is good practice for a system implementing xchar to support UTF–8.

A.30.6 Glossary

A.18.6.2.0895
CHAR
The behavior of the extended version of CHAR is fully backward compatible with 6.1.0895 CHAR.